A European Informational Website
learn more
Solon (Greek: ,[1] c. 638 BC–558 BC) was a famous Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and Lyric poet.
Solon first achieved prominence as a philosopher, but perceiving that Athens faced many problems, chose to enter politics. Besides being quite poor, the city was in the middle of a civil war as a consequence of the oppressive financial system imposed by a few wealthy citizens.
Solon was distinguished by the fact that although he was of the patrician class by birth, he was not wealthy, so while the rich did not perceive him as a commoner, the poor did not perceive him as an oppressor. Consequently, by popular request Solon was appointed Eponymous Archon, and given the task of reforming the political system. Eventually he revamped most aspects of Athenian life, both modifying the code of laws and writing a definitive Constitution.
He said that he "stood with a strong shield before both parties, the common people and the powerful, and allowed neither to win an unfair victory". Thus his law code was not baised towards either class, and the common Athenian was integrated into his Constitution, which is considered the first foreshadowing of the modern bicameral parliamentary system in history.
These democratic reforms were ultimately overturned in a coup, and the Solonian Constitution was revoked. His code of civil laws survived, however.
Solon was born in 638 B.C in Athens. He was son of Execestides, descended from Codrus, who had been the last King of Athens. Solon's mother was the cousin of Peisistratos' mother, so both Solon and Peisistratos were friends since childhood, indeed Solon was reputedly in love with Peisistratos. However, although Solon's family was among the Athenian nobles, they possessed only moderate wealth, as his father was exceedingly generous.[2]
Eventually Solon chose to work as a foreign merchant to support his family, (whose estate was now depleted) rather than rely on their many friends for support. However, beyond the financial motivations which drove him into this career, Solon was eager to experience and learn from the world in the way that only merchandising could offer him. Indeed, this career was highly regarded at the time because it allowed people to civilize barbarians, to befriend kings, and to learn many things. For these reasons, many important Athenians engaged in trade.[3] That he loved knowledge and the pursuit of a good life, as opposed to wealth is reflected in his poetry:
"Each day grew older, and learnt something new," And: "Both types of people are equally rich. "Whereas some have Gold, broad acres, corn, and wine; "the other people have clothes, food, wife, and youthful strength." Also: "Wealth I would have, but not by wrong procure justice, even if slow, is sure."[4]
Solon began writing poetry for his own entertainment, as a way to pass the time, but later he used poetry to comment on Athenian society. The poetry both reflected Solon's political activities, and sought to instruct the Athenians on the best course of action under a variety of circumstances, including chastising and criticising them for their follies. "We humbly beg a blessing on our laws From mighty Jove, and honor, and applause."[5]
Solon was counted among the greatest thinkers of Greece, and named one of the Seven Sages. The sages were men respected by the Greeks for being both wise and prudent. Their reputation was affirmed by a story that some fishermen from Coan discovered a golden tripod in their catch, which they had already sold to some visitors from Miletus. In order to settle the dispute over who it belonged to, they consulted the Pythia, the oracle at Delphi, who declared that it should go "To the wisest". The Coans and Milesians then agreed to give it to Thales of Miletus, however, he disputed the fact that he was the wisest Greek, and sent it to Bias of Priene. Bias, however, insisted that he was not the wisest either, and thus the tripod made its way from one sage to the next, with each sage insisting the next was wiser than they, until finally it wound up back with Thales. It was then taken to the Temple of Apollo in Thebes where it was dedicated to Apollo.[6]
A maxim from each of the sages was inscribed at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, as a dedication to Apollo as the god of truth. Solons' contribution was "Nothing in excess".
After a long and difficult war over Salamis Island with Megara, the Athenians were so sick of the matter that they passed a law forbidding any Athenian to suggest that Athens should try to take back Salamis, on pain of death. However, Solon found the humilation of defeat unbearable, and saw that many youngsters were eager to fight, but were too afraid of the law to suggest it. Solon decided to feign insanity, and have his family spread word about town that he had gone insane. Meanwhile he began writing a poem - 100 lines long and particularly elegant - entitled "Salamis", which urged its recapture. Having finished it and learnt to recite it from memory, Solon rushed to the marketplace where a crowd quickly gathered and listened as he recited the poem. When he had finished his friends began applauding him, and Peisistratos in particular encouraged the people listening to follow Solon's advice. Consequently, the Athenians abrogated the old law and renewed the war, with Solon named as the expedition's leader.
Solon, along with Peisistratos, took the Athenian fleet to cape Colias, where some Athenian women were performing the sacrificial rites to Demeter. So he sent a Double agent to the Megarians, to tell them that if they sailed to Colias right away, they could take the important women of Athens hostage. Meanwhile, Solon sent the women away, and had the younger members of his force, who did not have beards, dress in their clothes and play by the beach. When the Megarians arrived they beached and rushed out to capture the "women", who quickly despatched them with their concealed daggers. Solon then took their vessel and set out for Salamis.[7]
There is an alternate version of these events which holds that Solon set out to Salamis with a fleet of fishing boats and one Triakonter, which he anchored near Salamis. The Megarians got wind of this and sent a ship out to reconnoitre their position, which Solon captured and filled with his best men. Solon then landed on Salamis and engaged the Megarians, while the men on the ship sailed into Salamis and captured it.[8]
The Megarians refused to give up, however, and the war continued for some time until finally both sides agreed to allow the Spartans to decide who the island belonged to. Socrates put forward the case that the heroes buried on the island were buried in an Athenian fashion, facing west, as opposed to the Megarian fashion, who bury their dead facing east. Solon also cited some oracles of Apollo, which called Salamis Ionian, strengthening his case. Consequently, Salamis was given to Athens and Solon's reputation and authority grew.[9]
Subsequently, from Delphi, Solon called for retaliation, against Kirra, which had offended Delphi's temple. All Greece was stirred by this request although the military campaign wasn't led by Solon, being led instead by Alcmaeon.[10]
By his already overwhelming political power, Solon resolved the Cylon crisis, which had divided Athens, into two factions. The nine Athenian Archons had repressed Cylon's revolutionary fellows so bloodily that the horrified Athenians believed that these Archons were evilly accursed. While Cylon's party was regaining popular support, Solon mustered the noblest Athenians and, by his great reputation, Solon prevailed politically against the accused Archon's stand, organizing a public trial, with a 300 individual jury which was picked from the Athenian nobility. The Archons were found guilty. The sentence stipulated that the living Archons had to leave Attica whereas the dead ones had to be reburied abroad.[11]
Meanwhile, Megara counterattacked, recapturing both Nisaea and Salamis.[12]
Additionally, the Athenians believed that the urban center was suffering much bad religious experience, among which examples were both mystical terrors and apparitions. For purification, people resorted to Epimenides. He became Solon's friend, assisting in his legislation. They decided both softening the Athenian rites and building more temples throughout Athens. Thus, the Athenians would begin dedicating rather to political duties, accordingly with the law. These reforms were quite successful.[13]
Athens was submerged in a serious crisis. There was great unrest about the loan system, which was ruled by unscrupulous wealthy creditors. From their annual revenues, all farmers earmarked a sixth to their creditors. A better land redistribution was needed. In Athens, the poor people were usually sold as slaves abroad if they didn't pay their loans. Simultaneously, the nation wanted to agree on a Constitution but each Athenian political party desired a different government system, ranging from democracy, to oligarchy, including mixed systems. Solon described this chaotic political situation: "If the state might be either disturbed or upset; "Athens won't be able, either to reconstitute or to reorganize."[14]
People believed that Solon was the balanced political figure for reforming since he was neither a repressive rich Athenian nor was he poor. Thus, in 594 BC, after Archon Philombrotus, Solon was named Eponymous Archon, of Attica. Indeed, all Athenians were so enthusiastic that people began requesting that Solon might be made king. Though, unfalteringly Solon refused, explaining that "although monarchy is a pleasant place; no way out exists."[15]
Solon's first reforms spurned the traditional Athenian loan system. He softened its general terms and henceforth he forbade that people's lives guaranteed the contract. Accordingly, the interest rates were reduced by the "Relief from Burden", Seisachtheia. For this, Solon enlarged both the Athenian measure system and its currency's value. Now, a mina represented 100 drachmas, instead of 73 and this reduced all debts' value. Additionally, Solon recalled all Athenians who had been enslaved and exiled, freeing them. However, Solon suffered public humiliation because some of his upper class friends enriched themselves. Knowing the impending reform, they rushed to get credit and bought land. Popularly, these people were called "The Swindlers." Personally, Solon could avoid the scandal, repaying a great loan, which was of 10 talents.[16]
Initially, the Athenian aristocrats were furious against Solon, by the guarantee nullifying, whereas, simultaneously, the peasants felt deceived for the land hadn't been redistributed. Solon depicted the situation: "Once, they speculated gaily that good luck might befall, for them. "Now, they look coldly, toward me. "They deem that I am the traitor, to them all." About the land claiming, Solon referred: "So they came, searching plunder. "They deemed that endless wealth would be found. "They dreamed --vainly--. "Now, they rise an angry din." However, people began perceiving that the Seisachteia worked and, even, a public sacrifice was performed, honoring the reforms.[17] Solon's constitution was later called the Solonian Constitution.
After this initial success Athens committed Solon to a reform spate, comprising all Athenian institutions. Solon's first decision was to repeal Draco's laws, which prescribed capital punishment, for virtually any crime. Solon limited capital punishment only for murder convictions.[18]
Subsequently, Solon ordered a national census, measuring Athens wealth. Already, the Athenian population was divided, into four classes, constituting a Timokratia, which is an oligarchic social system. Solon redistributed political duties more popularly, among these classes:[19]
N.G.L. Hammond supposes that he instituted a graduated tax upon these upper classes at a rate of 6:3:1, with the lowest class of thetes paying nothing in taxes but being ineligible for elected office.
Solon distributed the Athenian magistracies among the aristocracy, although he integrated the common Athenian, into their Constitution. Solon described this in a poem. "I gave all needed strength, to the common people. "Yet, I kept the nobles, with strong power. "Thus, they are reciprocally shielded, from any violence. "They can't do wrong, to each other."[20] Accordingly, Solon did not allow that a Thete might be magistrate but a Thete could attend public assembies and a Thete could be juryman. The latter was extremely important because most disputes were settled by jury. Additionally, after a magistrate settled a case, people had a final appeal.[21]
Solon instituted the Areopagus, which was formed by politicians, who had already been Eponymous Archon. It was the Athenian Senate. However, simultaneously Solon created the Athenian lower chamber, whose name was "Council of the Four Hundred" or Boule. It was constituted by all four Athenian tribes, which sent a hundred men apiece. The lower chamber deliberated about all the issues which would be considered by the Areopagus. It is generally accepted that these institutions were the origin of the modern Occidental democratic system.[22]
Solon encouraged foreign trade for Attica, which was submerged in poverty. He ruled the Areopagus could inquire about each Athenian's property, punishing any unproductive resource.[23]
Other issues were:
Solon ordered that, in effect, his laws had to endure for 100 years and, effectively, they were sworn by all Athenian institutions, both at the Areopagus and at the Agora. The cylinders were kept, in the Acropolis.[25]
Soon Solon felt harassed because too many Athenians were questioning and criticizing him. As a result, Solon took a 10 year commercial excursion abroad. He expected that, afterward, people would be finally accustomed to his code of laws.[26] Solon exacted the promise of the city that his constitution would not change unless he were to change it himself. In his travels he visited Egypt, Cyprus and Lydia.
Solon began his trip in Egypt, spending some time at the Nile's outlet. Then, he visited Heliopolis where he discussed philosophy, with Psenophis. Subsequently, at Sais, Solon visited Neith's temple where the local priests, who were quite renowned in Egypt, described the Atlantis' island tale to him. Solon wrote this history as a poem to bring home to Athens. Plato used this manuscript, in his dialogues Timaios and Critias.[27]
Then, Solon sailed toward Cyprus. A local king, whose name was Philocyprus, received him at his royal capital, which was on the Clarius river. As the city was too congested geographically, Solon suggested that a whole new one be erected elsewhere. Solon oversaw the building. When it was finished, the new city was envied and many individuals wanted to live there. The new royal city was baptized Soloi, after Solon.[28]
Afterward, Solon was invited to Sardis, Lydia, by King Croesus. The following story is well known, particularly in ancient times. Among other historians, both Herodotus and Plutarch have presented it. Solon walked through the lavishly magnificent palace, with unexcited attitude. At this behavior, Croesus was so surprised that he began blustering, exhibiting all his treasures to Solon. Solon maintained a cool demeanor. Then, Croesus asked Solon whether Solon had known any other person, who had been happier than the Lydian king. Solon told about an Athenian, who had been happy by his own virtuous life, reasoning as follows: "There are good reasons—first, his city was prosperous, and he had fine sons, and lived to see children born to each of them, and all these children surviving; secondly, he had wealth enough by our standards; and he had a glorious death." Desperately, the surprised king asked again whether Solon had known another person, excluding this Athenian. Consequently, Solon told a similar Athenian tale. It was about two individuals, who had loved their mother intensely, until death. Ultimately, Croesus asked directly whether Solon considered that the Lydian king was happy or not. Solon responded: "Heaven endowed the Greeks with moderate gifts. Thus, our wisdom is both cautious and homely cast. It bears neither royal nor magnificent character. Besides, strange things await every man, in the unknown future, and we think that a man has only been happy if his life had a fortunate death." Croesus was quite angered, although it was recalling this story that Croesus saved himself from execution when his kingdom was overcome by Cyrus, who led the Persians.[29][30]
Solon returned to Athens, in the 560s BC, and he was received respectfully. However, he found that, again, chaos dominated. Each political party was eager to overpower its other rivals definitively, by any means. Many people wanted other revolution. Already, Solon was quite aged but, still, he mediated between the three rivaling political leaders. Among them, only Peisistratos showed some interest on Solon's striving. Peisistratos was leading the Highlands political party, Diakril, which congregated mountain people. With them, the Athenian poorer classes were ready, to revolt against the Athenian aristocracy.[31] Accordingly with Aristotle, Peisistratos was an extreme democrat.[32]
Early, Solon had detected Peisistratos' tough plans and Solon attempted stopping him. However, Peisistratos did his first move toward revolution, injuring himself. Then, he lied that he had been attacked by political enemies so a personal army may be created. Peisistratos was surrounded by political fellows when Solon said to him: "Dishonorably, you are imitating Homer's Odysseus but you do this, deceiving your own fellow citizens. Instead, Odysseus had mutilated himself, deceiving the enemy." Also, Solon said: "I'm wiser than the Athenians, who don't understand the situation, yet I'm braver than those Athenians, who understand the situation, but don't oppose."[33]
Effectively, the Highlands party took the Athenian government, overthrowing Solon's constitution by force.[34] Opposing this, the aged Solon addressed the Agora, against. He reproached the Athenians and one comment was largely remembered, historically. "In the past, the Athenians would have been able to combat any possible despotic coup. Nowadays, it would be more glorious to depose it while it's at its full growth." However, the fearful Athenians didn't listen.[35]
In these difficult days, Solon wrote a poem too, reproaching the Athenians. "By your own cowardice, you are suffering wrong. "Blame yourselves. Don't blame the gods, for this. "You have strengthened this tyrant "so, rightly, you have lost your freedom." Solon dressed in an armor and he stood on the street, before his home, so all Athenians might resist the government so. Eventually, Solon's friends warned him that Peisistratos might kill him by such insolences.[36]
Nonetheless, Peisistratos, whose government was rather like a constitutional one,[37] began dispensing much favor, to Solon. Indeed, Solon's code was kept severely in effect. Even, once during his mandate, the tyrant appeared in the Areopagus, responding a murder accusation.[38] He showed Solon considerable respect, either out of respect for the older man's wisdom, or out of regard for their former love.[39]
Thus, eventually, Solon became advisor and much suggestion ended even approved by this government.[40]
Accordingly with ancient sources, Solon died during Peisistratos' dominion. This meant a two-year margin, after the coup.[41]
During these months, Solon was completely dedicated, to leisure activities. This was reflected in a poem: "Both Aphrodite and Dionysus are my lone care, "together with the muses, which charm the human heart."
Among his final projects was the Atlantis poem, although Solon could not finish it, due to his extreme age.[42]
Most ancient writers, among whom Aristotle was, pointed that, after Solon died, his ashes were spread, around Salamis.[43]
Solon introduced the trial by jury; military obligations were codified based on class; the Council of the Four Hundred (or Boule) and the Areopagus were established as the main consultative and administrative bodies; he introduced many new laws, especially those covering debt and taxation; he remodeled the calendar; he created a court for the lowest classes called the Heliaia and allowed it to audit those passing from the office of archon for each year; he regulated weights and measures.
Solon also encouraged a growth in industry by offering citizenship to skilled foreign laborers and created a law which ensured fathers, unless farmers, passed on the skills of their profession to their sons. His laws were written onto special wooden cylinders and placed in the Acropolis.
He is also is credited with being the founder of the pederastic educational tradition in Athens. He composed poetry praising the love of boys and instituted legislation to control abuses against freeborn boys. Specifically, he excluded slaves from the wrestling halls and from pederasty.[44] According to the later histories of Plutarch and Aelian, Solon had the future Tyrant Peisistratus as an eromenos and later appointed him as a commander in the conquest of Salamis in 590s BC, however Aristotle claims that Peisistratus would have been too young at the time.[45][46][47]
Solon's works are preserved only in fragments.